The undated document below is available on the internet at this (link).  In summary, the paper provides numerous examples of nucleon cluster structure in light nuclei as predicted by the Brightsen Nucleon Cluster Model, including the isotopes boron-10 and lithium-7--with what is called "contribution to clustering" by helium-3 (the [PNP] cluster) and Helium-4 (the alpha).  As stated before, it is important to note that the Brightsen Model does not view helium-4 as a fundamental "nucleon cluster" building block, but instead allows for numerous combinations of 2- and 3- nucleon clusters (including matter and antimatter clusters) to form helium-4.  This is a fundamental prediction about the structure-function of helium-4 that is unique only to the Brightsen Model of the many different "cluster models" that are now known in nuclear physics.

For example, in the paper below, the nucleon cluster structure of boron-10 has been shown experimentally to contain a significant cross section of single deuteron [NP] clusters, which agrees with prediction of the Brightsen Model as discussed at the internal link What's New for 2005, ( March 29 ).  According to the Brightsen Model, one isodyne structure for boron-10 would contain two [NP] clusters in conjunction with a [NPN] cluster and [PNP] cluster.  However, the Brightsen Model also predicts that two [NP] clusters can form a single helium-4 structure (the alpha), which was also observed in the experimental results in the paper below.  This is made possible because the [NP] cluster is a "boson" and thus is not required to follow the Pauli exclusion rule, thus numerous [NP] boson clusters can coexist in the same energy shell of isotopes--exactly as predicted by the Brightsen Model.  This observation that two [NP] clusters can be found either as independent entities in the 1s shell of boron-10 each with their own quantum numbers (spin, magnetic moment, etc.) OR as a combined structure to form a helium-4 structure, is a unique prediction of the Brightsen Model. (Comments are welcome).

INVESTIGATION OF LIGHT NUCLEUS CLUSTERING IN RELATIVISTIC MULTIFRAGMENTATION PROCESSES

M. I. Adamovich1, V. Bradnova2, M. M. Chernyavsky1, V. A. Dronov1, S. G. Gerasimov1, L. Just3, M. Haiduc4, S. P. Kharlamov1, K. A. Kotel’nikov1, A. D. Kovalenko2, V. A. Krasnov2, V. G. Larionova1, F. G.Lepekhin5, A. I. Malakhov2, G. I. Orlova1, N. G. Peresadko1, N. G. Polukhina1, P. A. Rukoyatkin2, V. V.Rusakova2, N. A. Salmanova1, B. B. Simonov5, S. Vokál2,6, P. I. Zarubin2

The BECQUEREL Collaboration

1P. N. Lebedev Physical Institute RAS, Moscow, Russia (FIAN) 2Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna, Russia (JINR) 3Institute of Experimental Physics SAS, Košice, Slovakia 4Institute of Space Sciences, Bucharest-Magurele, Romania 5Petersburg Institute of Nuclear Physics, Gatchina, Russia 6P. J. Šafárik University, Košice, Slovakia

Abstract

The use of emulsions for studying nuclear clustering in light nucleus fragmentation processes at energies higher than 1A GeV is discussed. New results on the topologies of relativistic 7Li and 10B nucleus fragmentation in peripheral interactions are given. A program of research of the cluster structure in stable andradioactive nuclei is suggested.

Triple Neutron Emission for 1-H-6 and 5-B-17 supports Brightsen Nucleon Cluster Model. At the following link from (Jefferson Lab) experimental evidence of a decay process called "triple neutron emission" is presented for two isotopes, 1-H-6 and 5-B-17.  According to the Brightsen Model, a possible 3-nucleon cluster of the form [NNN] where N=neutron is predicted to allow for 100 % model symmetry of all possible 2- and 3-nucleon clusters as the fundamental building blocks of nuclei (e.g., [NP], [NN], [PP], [NPN], [PNP], [NNN], [PPP], no other logical combinations being possible).

According to the Brightsen Model, one possible nucleon cluster decay series for hydrogen isotopes from A = 1 to 6 is as follows:

1-H-1	Stable	[P]
1-H-2	Stable	[NP], a fundamental Brightsen Model cluster
1-H-3	Unstable, beta decay to [PNP]	[NPN], a fundamental Brightsen Model cluster
1-H-4	Unstable, neutron emission to 1-H-3	[NPN] +[N]
1-H-5	Unstable, neutron emission to 1-H-4	[NPN] + [NN]
1-H-6	Unstable, triple neutron emission to [NPN]	[NPN] + [NNN]

From the above table, the mechanism of triple neutron emission is predicted by the Brightsen Model as a type of decay where a [NNN] realistic entity is present within the structure of the 1-H-6 isotope.  Note that the decay dynamic is predicted to form the triton cluster [NPN] which must also then be present as a realistic entity within the structure of 1-H-6 according to the Brightsen Model.  Experimental observation of tritons within 1-H-4 and 1-H-5 has been experimentally reported (see this link), conforming to the above tabled predictions of the Brightsen Model. 

Of interest is the fact that the above table shows a possible double neutron decay mode for 1-H-5, although this has not at this time been experimentally observed according to the Jefferson Lab web site. 

Webmaster update: August 5, 2005.  Experimental confirmation exists that 1-H-5 does in fact show evidence of a dineutron cluster, as predcited above by the Brightsen model--see below:

It is shown that the continuum missing-mass spectra for the ( pi ^-, pi ⁺) and ( pi ^-,p) reactions leading to extremely neutron-rich exotic nuclei can be explained in terms of phase-space distributions by invoking the presence of dineutrons as one of the products of the breakup. It is suggested that this indicates the presence of the dineutron as a cluster in these neutron-rich systems during their breakup. It is noted that these observations in weakly unbound systems may be analogs of the dineutron halos for which evidence has been found in weakly bound nuclei near the neutron drip line.

For the isotope 5-B-17, the potential nucleon cluster structure is much more complex.  One possibility that would allow for the emission of a [NNN] cluster in a manner similar to that of 1-H-6 is a structure with a 4-Be-11 core rotating against a cluster structure of {[NPN] + [NNN]}  Comments are Welcome.

Antiquark flavor asymmetry in the "proton sea" as predicted by the Brightsen NCM.  According to quantum chromodynamic theory, the proton [P] and neutron [N] are composed of quarks and gluons, as are their antimatter mirrors.  Nucleons are composed of three valence u-up and d-down quarks held together by the strong force which is mediated by gluons.  Thus, let ^ = antimatter quark, then [P] = (uud), anti[P] = (u^u^d^), [N] = (ddu), anti[N] = (d^d^u^). 

However, in addition to the three valence quarks, it is known that the proton [P] contains a "sea" of quark-antiquark meson pairs (q q^), such as the pions (u^d), (d^u), (u^u)+(dd^).  But what is the source of these (q q^) pairs in the sea ?  One hypothesis is that a gluon can "pair produce" (q q^) as virtual particles in the zero-point vacuum, which will then quickly annihilate each other to form more gluons.  As discussed below, the Brightsen NCM offers a different perspective.

Experiments at Fermilab (E866) have dedected a (q q^) asymmetry in the proton sea, that is, more anti-down quarks (d^) were observed experimentally to be present than anti-up quarks (u^).  

This experimental result is predicted by the Brightsen NCM formalism.   How ?

According to the Brightsen Model, the proton [P] is NOT an independent particle, but has an internal nucleon (and quark) cluster structure composed of  matter and antimatter clusters (positive mass vs negative mass) interacting via a gravity-antigravity force.  As published by Mr. Brightsen and W. Nelson (see Publications) a number of different nucleon cluster "isodyne" combinations can form the proton [P] as shown below, with the limits of the isodyne sequence unknown at this time.  The 1-H-1 wavefunction is thus a sum over possibilities of all different partial isodyne wavefunctions. 

Brightsen Model Nucleon Cluster Structures for 1-H-1 (the proton)

                                     (primary clusters)  (secondary halo clusters)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

                                    NP  NPN   PNP   NN  PP   NNN  PPP     Isodyne Type

                                                            ...(etc.)...                           M (o - ?)

                    Matter       8     -3      -2      0      0      0      0              M (n)

                      (+)           5     -2      -1       0      0      0      0             M (m)

                                    -4      1       2       0      0      0      0             M (l)

                                     2     -1       0       0      0      0      0             M (k)

                                     -1     0       1       0      0      0      0              M (j)

                                      0     1       0      -1      0      0      0              M (i)

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Each of the above nucleon clusters can be reformulated into quark clusters.  Let 1[NP] = ( 3d3u); 1[N^P^] = (3d^3u^); 1[NPN] = (5d4u); 1[N^P^N^] = (5d^4u^); 1[PNP] = (4d5u); 1[P^N^P^] = (4d^5u^); 1[NN]halo = (4d2u); 1[N^N^]halo = (4d^2u^). 

Interactions between asymmetric matter and antimatter "bags of quarks" are predicted to result in a complex quantum superposition (e.g., z = a + b x i ; from complex number theory) such that the observed proton [P] represents the "real" superposed state (a), with the remaining quarks forming the "imaginary" superposed state (b x i).  Thus the above isodyne diagram can be reformulated into u-up and d-down quarks (matter and antimatter) as shown below:

Quark structure of 1-H-1 (proton) showing anti-up and anti-down flavor asymmetry within the proton sea as predicted by the Brightsen NCM

                 Sum of quarks within sea:               61    56                                    0.91803

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

As shown above, the Brightsen Model uniquely predicts the results of the Fermilab (E886) experiment of anntiquark asymmetry within the proton sea, that is, more (d^) quarks are predicted by the Brightsen Model than (u^) quarks, with (u^) / (d^) isodyne ratios ranging from 1.0 to 0.5.  The ratio observed in any single experiment depends on how much energy is used to "collapse the wavefunction" of the imaginary part of the complex quantum superposition formed by interaction between asymmetric matter and antimatter clusters.  Note, that contrary to the hypothesis that the (q q^) meson pairs experimentally observed are due to gluon "pair production", the Brightsen Model predicts that the (q q^) pairs form part of the strong force gravity-antigravity meson interaction that maintains a macroscopic [NP][N^P^] nucleon cluster structure within the proton sea.   As discussed in numerous publications by Mr. Brightsen, it is the ever present antimatter [N^P^] bag of quarks within the proton sea that allows for low energy fusion of 1-H-1 with heavy isotopes for energy production.  Comments are Welcome.                  

Antimatter nucleon clusters within the deuteron [N-P] sea as predicted by the Brightsen Nucleon Cluster Model.  In a number of publications (Infinite Energy, September-October 1995, p. 56; Davis & Brightsen, Infinite Energy, July-August 1995) Mr. Brightsen makes the controversial claim that antimatter nucleon clusters are present with 1-H-1 (the proton) and 1-H-2 (the deuteron).  The antimatter nucleon cluster structure within the proton [P] has been discussed at these internal links (see January 5, June 5, June 30, July 17-What's new for 2005).  Although the dynamics of how deuterium [NP] can maintain antimatter nucleon clusters has not been published by Mr. Brightsen, the Webmaster offers the following hypothesis.  Comments are Welcome.

According to the Brightsen NCM, independent (unbound) protons [P] and neutrons [N] do not exist within isotopes.  Thus, let ^ = antimatter, then one  possible isodyne structure for the proton is,

[P]  =  [PNP]  +  [N^P^], and for the neutron,

[N] = [NPN]  +  [N^P^] 

addition of quantum superposition states yields,

[PNP] + [NPN]  matter clusters rotating against 2 [N^P^] antimatter clusters,

and addition using complex number theory (e.g., z = a + bi) yields, 

[PNP] rotating against [N^P^] and, [NPN] rotating against [N^P^]

with the [P+N] representing the "real" superposition quantum state of the deuteron, and two hidden [N^P^] "imaginary" antimatter cluster quantum states within the deuteron sea. Note that the hidden clusters, both matter and antimatter, are bosons and thus do not follow Pauli Exclusion statistical dynamics. According to Mr. Brightsen, it is the quantum existence of these antimatter [N^P^] clusters within the deuteron sea that allow reactions of deuterium with heavy elements at low energies to produce a variety of experimentally confirmed stable nuclides such as He-4, Ca-40, Sr-86, Sr-88 and radioactive nuclides H-3, Ru-103, Rh-99, Rh-100, Rh-101, Rh-101m, Rh-102, Pd-100, Ag-106, Ag-106m, Ag-110m (as of 1995).  All of these reactions are currently believed to be prohibited because deuterium cannot penetrate the "coulomb barrier" due to strong electrostatic repulsion, however, the Brightsen Model provides a unique explanation that is obtained only when the macroscopic structure of the atomic nucleus is viewed as interacting nucleon clusters, and not independent (unbound) nucleons as held by the current Quark Standard Model. 

It is suggested by the Webmaster that the above hypothesis of Mr. Brightsen can be falsified if it can be shown experimentally that (1) a reaction between helium-3 + anti-deuterium does not yield protons, (2) a reaction between tritium and anti-deuterium does not yield neutrons, or (3) no evidence of antimatter is experimentally observed within the deuteron sea outside the six valence quarks of the proton and neutron [(uud)(ddu)].  Peer reviewed publications on these reactions are requested (email to Webmaster).

The Close-Packed Sphern Model of Linus Pauling (see internal link, May 15, What's New for 2005) predicts that stable isotopes must have either 2- nucleon and/or 3-nucleon spherons (or Brightsen clusters) rotating against each other to maintain their stability.  In his 1996 publication on the Nucleon Cluster Model, Mr. Brightsen presents the isodyne structure for stable but rare18-Argon-38 (N=20).  In the diagram below, the number of isodynes has been expanded to 13, centered on [NP+NPN=10; PNP=4] as shown on the Brightsen (1996) Atomic and Nuclear Periodic Table of Elements and Isotopes (see publications link). Connecting the sequence of red numbers (and blue numbers) results in double symmetric wave functions across the isotope superposition (with ∆ of 1-3 or 3-1 for both red and blue sequence) connecting the [PNP] and [NPN] clusters.  This type of rotation of 3-nucleon clusters against each other in a stable isotope conforms to the prediction of the Pauling Close-Packed Spheron Model.  It is important to note that the limits of the isodyne sequence for any isotope is unknown at this time, an area open to theoretical and experimental investigation Comments are Welcome. 

Isodyne* Quantum Superposition for beta-stable 18-Argon-38 (N=20) as predicted by Brightsen NCM

 (minus [-] sign represents antimatter clusters)

# of PNP     10        9          8          7          6          5          4          3          2          1          0          -1         -2

# of NPN    12        11        10        9          8          7          6          5          4          3          2           1          0

# of NP       -14       -11       -8         -5         -2        1         4          7          10        13        16        19        22

* Note:  The term "isodyne", first published by Robert Bass (see  publications), has also been referred to as "nuclear cluster isomers" by nuclear physicist Agim Ibishi (see this link).  As stated by Dr. Ibishi, "nuclear cluster isomers" represent the internal cluster wavefunctions of different nuclear cluster "models" that can be written for the same isotope.   In the above example, 13 separate isodyne nuclear cluster isomers (aka: isodynes) are shown for the stable but rare isotope 18-Argon-38 with (N=20).  The Brightsen Model thus predicts that the "nucleon quantum reality" of 18-Argon-38 (as well as all isotopes) is represented by a quantum superposition that represents the SUM of all possible nuclear cluster isomers (isodynes)--(Sum over Possibilities view of quantum reality).  Experimental observation thus collaspes the 18-Atgon-38 isotope wavefunction to reveal a single isodyne structure at any momemt in time.  This revolutionary hypothesis of nuclear cluster structure differs drastically from the current Quark Standard Model which holds that the [N] and [P] are "independent" entities with interacting up-down quarks limited to the boundary of independent nucleons, a view categorically rejected by the Brightsen NCM.  According to the Brightsen Model, quarks interactions can only occur between 2- and 3- nucleon cluster entities with gravity and antigravity strong forces present when asymmetrical matter and antimatter nucleon clusters are invloved.

Brightsen Model predictions concerning "internal quark structure of the proton sea" for 1-H-1 isotope

At the following web site (see link) is the following diagram and text on the internal quark structure of the proton, 1-H-1 isotope. 

The Internal Structure of Protons and Neutrons

Figure 2.1.  Schematic illustration of the substructure of a proton or neutron (left) and of a meson (right), according to the theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Among the constituents confined within the nucleon are three point-like valence quarks, shown here as heavy colored dots, which interact by exchanging gluons shown as spring-like lines. Instead of three quarks, the meson has one quark and one antiquark (dot with white center) as valence constituents. The strong interactions induce additional gluons and a "sea" of virtual quark-antiquark pairs, shown as smaller, fainter dots. Quarks are labeled "q" and antiquarks "¯q". The colors of the constituents represent their intrinsic strong charges, the source of their participation in QCD interactions. Note that quarks appear only in groups of three (with different colors) or in quark-antiquark pairs. The nature of the strong interactions inside a nucleon and the relative contributions of various types of valence and sea quarks, as well as gluons, to the nucleon's overall properties have become major topics of research in nuclear physics.

--------------------------

What does the Brightsen Model predict about the structure of the "sea of quarks" as shown above ?   First, the Brightsen Model does not recognize the proton and neutron as free (unbound) within nuclei, but instead views the volume of the proton (or neutron) to be a union of various combinations of matter and antimatter nucleon clusters.  Thus, one possible isodyne cluster structure for the form of proton called 1-H-1 is as follows:

[PNP] + [N^P^] = [P] observed-actual + {[NP] + [N^P^]} hidden-potential,

with quark structure (uud) + [(ddu)(uud)] + [(d^d^u^)(u^u^d^)]

Webmaster update: July 8, 2005.   The above matter-antimatter interaction can be described using complex number theory and quantum superposition.  Thus, let z = the stable quantum dynamic "superposition" state of the interaction of the matter [PNP] and antimatter [N^P^] clusters.  From complex number theory,  z = a (real) + b(imaginary) * sq rt -1 (i).  Therefore the (uud) quark structure would represent the mass of the (real) quantum state, with [(ddu)(uud)] + [(d^d^u^)(u^u^d^)] as the (imaginary) mass.  This "superposition of states" is a fundamental concept of quantum mechanics in which two independent states can be combined or superposed, such that the sysytem as a whole is effectively in both quantum states at the same time.  When the system is "observed" it resolves into either the (real) or (imaginary) depending on the type of observation.  Thus, under low energy conditions, the Brightsen Model predicts that the (uud) baryon is observed (e.g., the proton), but when subjected to high energy particles the (imaginary) state of the superposition is observed as pairs of interacting mesons (ud^), (d^u), (uu^), (dd^).  This process represents the collapse of the proton wavefunction. 

One will note that the Brightsen Model predicts that the proton structure for 1-H-1 has a very complex "proton sea" of matter and antimatter up and down quarks.  According to Mr. Brightsen, this "proton sea" has "structure" such that the identity of the hidden matter and antimatter clusters (shown in purple) is maintained via a proposed strong force interaction that involves gravity (working with matter cluster) and antigravity (working with antimatter cluster).  The Brightsen hypothesis that 1-H-1 has internal [N^P^] superposed quantum structure function is what allows for low energy interactions of hydrogen with palladium to produce radionuclides (see Publications link, Davis and Brightsen, 1995). 

The experimental observation that protons can bind with antiprotons (for a very short period of time) to form "protonium" (see this link) leads to a prediction that neutrons may also bind to antineutrons.  This dual dynamic (that is, P binds to P^ while at the same time N binds to N^, where ^ = antimatter) may allow for the "proton sea" to maintain realistic but hidden quark structure dynamic. If the above predictions of the Brightsen Model concerning the internal quark structure of the proton are shown to conform with experimental data, then a new physics of the atomic nucleus involving gravity (matter)-antigravity (amtimatter) interactions must result.

  Comments are welcome.

The following internet link provides strong experimental support for the Brightsen NCM as relates to the cluster structure of helium-6.  According to the Brightsen Model, one isodyne structure for 2-He-6 is:   {[NP]+[NP]} alpha core in 1s shell (with A max = 4) + [NN] halo in 1 p shell (with A max = 12)  An alternative shell model that views protons and neutrons as independent entities would predict the following structure for 2-He-6, {alpha core + [N] +[N]}, however, this model would violate the basic quantum dynamic axiom of the Brightsen Model that ..."independent (unbound) protons and neutrons do not exist..." .  As experimentally described below, the Brightsen Model prediction is confirmed over the independent particle shell-model prediction..  Of particular interest is the experimental finding that an attempt to add a proton to helium-6 also did not result in a free proton being placed into the 1p energy shell, but instead resulted in formation of a fundamental Brightsen Model cluster, the [NPN] or triton. (Commets are welcome).

PHYSICS NEWS UPDATE The American Institute of Physics Bulletin of Physics News Number 435 June 21, 1999 by Phillip F. Schewe and Ben Stein Physics News 435, June 21, 1999		Previous Next June 1999 Main page
HELIUM-6 NUCLEI SHARE DI-NEUTRONS. Helium-6 nuclei, formed into beams for the first time only last year, are thought to be "Borromean" structures (so named for the heraldic symbol of the Princes of Borromeo, and consisting of three interlinking rings which fall apart if any one ring is removed). The He-6 nucleus, theorists believe, is really a He-4 core surrounded by two extra, loosely bound neutrons which can reside in one of two configurations: (1) one neutron on either side of the He-4 core or (2) both neutrons close together (comprising a "di-neutron") far from the He-4 core. To test this theory and to demonstrate the existence of di-neutrons, Yuri Oganessian and his colleagues at the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research (JINR) near Moscow (oganessian@flnr.jinr.ru, 011-7- 09621-62151) collided a He-6 beam with a He-4 target and observed that some of the He-4 nuclei had been converted into He-6, proving that in some of the high-energy collisions di-neutrons had jumped from one nucleus to the other. This also holds true when He-6 beams hit hydrogen targets (the target nucleus being a single proton). In this case a di-neutron joined the proton to form a tritium nucleus. These results seem to favor the picture in which di-neutrons are the rule rather than the exception in He-6 nuclei. Now the JINR scientists are using He-8 beams to study in more detail how neutrons correlate with each other within nuclei and to search for signs of "tetra-neutron" states. (Oganessian, Zagrebaev, and Vaagen, Physical Review Letters, 21 June 1999; figures at www.aip.org/physnews/graphics)

The following comments on the Brightsen Nucleon Cluster Model were received from the web site [ MadSci Network: Physics ] in answer to a question submitted by the webmaster of this site about the possible binding of matter protons [P] to antimatter neutrons [N] to form deuterium of the type [Pmatter-Nantimatter].  See "unmatter" concept of Florentin Smarandache in the June 5, 2005 posting below for the motivation for this question.

 Question:   Re: can matter proton bind to antimatter neutron to form deuteron ?

Date: Tue Jun 7 09:47:49 2005
Posted By: Benn Tannenbaum, Senior Program Associate
Area of science: Physics
ID: 1117994649.Ph

Message:

I'm afraid that the Brightsen model has been disproved. We now know that protons and neutrons are made of up and down quarks-- two up and one down for the proton and two down and one up for the neutron.

Webmaster update:  June 30, 2005.  In fact, what we know (as of June, 2005) is that the above statement by Dr. Tannenbaum is incomplete.   Research as viewed at this link indicates that the internal structure of the proton is much more complex than three simple quarks (uud).  Within the "proton sea" are known to exist so-called virtual mesons (matter quarks bound to antimatter quarks), and the strange quark has recently been verified as being present within the internal structure of the proton (see this link to Science Daily)

This was realized in the 1960s and eventually codified in Quantum Chromodynamics, part of the Standard Model. Gross, Politzer and Wilczek won the 2004 Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of asymptotic freedom in the strong force (see http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/2004/index.html for more details) which binds quarks together to form protons and neutrons. Because of this knowledge, we know that a proton is made of two up and a down quark and an anti-matter neutron is made of two anti-down quarks and an anti-up quark. Instead of a neutron, what you'd likely get is three pions: two (up/anti-down) pions and one (down/anti-up) pion, or (up/anti-up), (up/anti-down), and (down/anti-up).  

Webmaster update: June 30, 2005.  The above statement by Dr. Tennenbaum implies that in all cases Quantum chromodynamics (QCD) predicts that matter and antimatter nucleons cannot form bound clusters.  However, as read at this link, it has been shown experimentally that a proton and antiproton can form "protonium", with the following quark structure (uud) + (u^u^d^).   The quark structure for proton + antineutron is (uud) + (d^d^u^).  Thus if the quark structure of "protonium" can bind to form a matter + antimatter nucleon pair, then [P + N^] interactions may also be possible. 

So... why would this happen rather than what you predicted? My reading of the Brightsen nuclear cluster model is that it assumes that protons and neutrons are point particles, or at least ones that are indivisible. We know that not to be true-- 40+ years of experiment and theory have convinced us that protons and neutrons are composed of quarks.

Webmaster update: June 30, 2005.  The above comments represent a misunderstanding of the Brightsen Model.  As discussed below, Mr. Brightsen did recognize quarks as possible sub-structure particles of nucleons.

Further, we also know that protons and neutrons inside a nucleus do not behave as point particles but rather as bags of quarks.

Webmaster update: June 30, 2005.  The Brightsen Model does not recognize proton and neutrons as "point particles" for the simple reason that the model predicts that free protons and free neutrons (unbound) do not exist within nuclear shells of isotopes.   This is not to say that the Brightsen MOdel predicts that free [P] and [N] do not exist somewhere, they just do not exist within the bounds of  isotopes.  The Brightsen Model recognizes "clusters of protons and neutrons" as the basic macroscopic building blocks of isotopes.  This seemingly radical view is in complete agreement with the various "bag models" of quark structure.  According to the Brightsen Model, the "bag of quarks" is  not confined to the volume of individual nucleons, but is confined within the boundaries of various  "cluster of nucleons" such as {NP], [PNP], [NPN], [NN], [PP].

By shooting probes at nuclei (such as electrons, protons, or neutrons) we have learned that we can get scattering from either individual quarks (shooting softly) or protons or neutrons (shooting hard). This, in turn, tells us that the quarks inside the nucleus are not confined to the proton or neutron but rather spread out across the nucleus. This is what prevents the reaction you describe from occuring.

I hope this helps!   MadSci Network: Physics 

(Comments and experimental facts on this question are welcome) 

In his answer, Dr. Tannenbaum does not include "color" quark dynamics, which may allow for the formation of a strange type of deuterium with mixture of matter and antimatter nucleons and quarks.  According to QCD with color, up and down quarks come in three color forms, red, blue, green, and a baryon must include one of each to form a "white" structure.  Thus, for example, reducing the nucleon [P+N^] macroscopic cluster to quark dynamics, and including "color", will yield the following type of deuterium structure:  [(r-u+b-u+g-d) + (g-u^+b-d^+r-d^)], which suggests the possibility that a bound [PN^] nucleon resonance can result, given that no identicle matter-antimatter quark color pairs are present in the final structure. 

In addition, Dr. Tennenbaum makes what turns out to be a false assumption in his final paragraph that "....the Brightsen Model views protons and neutrons as point particles, or at least ones that are indivisble..."  This statement is factually incorrect, but in all fairness to Dr. Tannenbaum, he had no way to know this, since Mr. Brightsen never published on quark structure.  However, in a December 31, 1988 memo from Mr. Brightsen titled "Introduction to the Nucleon Cluster Model" of the previous Nuclear Science Research Corporation (personal papers of Mr. Brightsen), Mr. Brightsen makes the following comments: 

"Today the search for systematics by the nuclear physics community is concentrated almost totally on determining the sub-nuclear components (quarks, leptons, bosons) by means of powerful accelerators... In contrast to the efforts of the particle physicists, the ... Nucleon Cluster Model will focus on the possible explanations of the macroscopic properties that derive from the constitution of the nucleus, specifically their mass, charge, and spin.  From a practical point of view, the future applications of these findings (...e.g., macroscopic nuclear properties such as beta-stability, nuclear cross sections, magnetic moments, etc.) is most important (... for national security and improvements of technology)".   R. A. Brightsen, December, 1988.

Thus, it is clear that Mr. Brightsen held the view that protons and neutrons are in fact composed of sub-nuclear particles such as quarks, but he also felt that such "microscopic" knowledge was of little practical importance for the future of nuclear physics (at least in 1988).  Mr. Brightsen's research was focused on the "macroscopic" properties that derive from the "microscopic" quark constitution of the atomic nucleus.  The practical applications of this macroscopic view of the atomic nucleus are presented by Mr.Brightsen in his various publications (see Publications link).  (Comments are welcome).

New: June 5, 2005.  The matter and antimatter cluster structure for a select number of nuclides has been published by Mr. Brightsen and Willard Nelson (see  publications).  Following the graphic approach of Nelson, the cluster structures for 1-H-1 and 2-He-4 are shown below, with secondary "halo" clusters added by the webmaster. 

Note that each nuclide is predicted by the Brightsen Model to have many different "isodyne" structures, with both matter [(e.g., M (i) to M (?)] and antimatter [(e.g., A (i) to A (?)] identity, depending on the types and number of clusters present (note: Mr. Brightsen has indicated in his publications that the limit of isodyne types for each nuclide is unknown at this time, see publications).  Each isodyne would be predicted to have its own "wavefunction", and it is implied by Mr. Brightsen in his publications that each of these isodyne wavefunctions can have realistic identity such that they can intermingle with isodynes of other nuclides (for example, in his 1995 publication in Infinite Energy, Vol 1(3), Mr. Brightsen shows how various isodynes of 1-H-1 can intermingle with 46-Pb-104 to form 45- Rh--101 + 2-He-4 (the alpha) daughter structure emitted. It is suggested here that the sum of individual cluster wavefunctions for any nuclide may  represent the wavefunction for the "Resonating Group Structure" of the nuclide as a whole, as suggested by the RSG model of J.A. Wheeler (1937, Phys. Rev. 52, 1083, 1107).  Similar Brightsen Model cluster diagrams to the ones presented below can be created for all known and predicted isotopes, both stable and unstable (submit Comments).

Webmaster update: June 5, 2005:  The term "isodyne", first published by Robert Bass (see  publications), has also been referred to as "nuclear cluster isomers" by Agim Ibishi (see this link).  As stated by Ibishi, "nuclear cluster isomers" represent the internal cluster wavefunctions of different nuclear cluster "models" that can be written for the same isotope.   For example, Ibishi reports that 90Y can be represented by two different nuclear cluster isomers (1) 87Rb core + [P-N-P], and (2) 87Sr core + [N-P-N].

Brightsen Model Nucleon Cluster Structures for 1-H-1 (the proton)

              (note: numbers with minus sign (-) represent antimatter clusters)

                                     (primary clusters)  (secondary halo clusters)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

                                     NP  NPN   PNP   NN  PP   NNN  PPP     Isodyne Type

                                                            ...(etc.)...                           M (p - ?)

                                    11    -4       -3      0      0      0      0             M(o)

                    Matter       8     -3       -2      0      0      0      0             M (n)

                      (+)           5     -2      -1       0      0      0      0             M (m)

                                    -4      1       2       0      0      0      0             M (l)

                                      2    -1       0       0      0      0      0             M (k)

                                     -1     0       1       0      0      0      0              M (j)

                                      0      1      0      -1      0      0      0              M (i)

               Mass-charge center at origin (Cs=0; matter isodynes above, antimatter below)

                    Anti-matter 0     -1      0      1       0      0      0            A (i)

                      (-)             1       0      -1     0       0      0      0            A (j)

                                      -2     -1       0      0       0      0      0           A (k)

                                      4      -1      -2      0       0      0      0           A (j)

                                      -5       2      1      0       0      0      0           A (m)

                                      -8       3      2      0       0      0      0           A (n)

                                     -11      4      3      0       0      0      0           A(o)

                                                             ... (etc.)                            A (p - ?)

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Webmaster update: June 9, 2005.   Comments have been received (see June 7, 2005 posting) suggesting that the Brightsen Model does not conform to quark microscopic dynamics for matter-antimatter interactions.  This is not true.  For example, from the above table, one cluster isodyne for 1-H-1 is two matter [N-P] clusters bounded to one antimatter [N-P-N] cluster.  Let ^ = symbol for an antimatter quark.  Then the quark structure for the above 1-H-1 isodyne is:

{[(ddu) -(uud)] + [(ddu)-(uud)]}  +  [(d^d^u^) - (u^u^d^) - (d^d^u^)]

Cancel of matter-antimatter quark pairs yields:  [ (uud) ], which is the Standard Model quark structure for 1-H-1.  Thus it is clear that the Brightsen Model is in complete agreement with quark microscopic structure predictions. 

Webmaster update: July 10, 2005.   As discussed in the July 10, 2005 posting above, the experimentally observed [ (uud) ] quark structure can be viewed as a quantum superposition entity interacting via a gravity-antigravity strong force with a hidden quantum superposition of the remaining six quark structures, including three of pure antimatter.  Mathematically, this relationship follows rules of complex number theory, that allows for a stable coexistence of "real" and "imaginary" quantum superposed states at the same time. 

Webmaster update: June 5, 2005, updated June 9:  In the following nucleon cluster structure representation for 2-He-4, one will note a unique prediction when halo structures are included, namely that "pion pairs" can be formed from interaction of Brightsen clusters.  (submit Comments). 

New: Posted June 19, 2005.  Comments received from a nuclear physicist indicates that (uuu)+(d^d^d^), an excited type of 6-quark di-baryon cluster would not be able to bind because [Delta] structures decay too quickly.  However, the answer provided did not consider the possibility of superfreezing to slow the decay reaction long enough to allow a weak binding between [Delta}++ and [Delta]-, which is a type of (uuu)+(d^d^d^) 6-quark structure.   The search for bound 6-quark structures (e.g., di-baryrons) is now an active area of research.

New: posted June 6, 2005:  The theoretical existence of a matter-antimatter [Delta+Delta] structure has been discussed by Dr. Florentin Smarandache, what he calls "unmatter", a new state of existence (see this Link to journal Progress in Physics).  The abstract for Dr. Smarandache's paper follows:

April, 2005 PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Volume 1

A New Form of Matter—Unmatter, Composed of Particles and Anti-Particles

Florentin Smarandache

Dept. of Mathematics, University of New Mexico, 200 College Road, Gallup, NM 87301, USA

E-mail: fsmarandache@yahoo.com; smarand@unm.edu

Besides matter and antimatter there must exist unmatter (as a new form of matter) in accordance with the neutrosophy theory that between an entity <A> and its opposite <AntiA> there exist intermediate entities <NeutA>. Unmatter is neither matter nor antimatter, but something in between. An atom of unmatter is formed either by (1): electrons, protons, and antineutrons, or by (2): antielectrons, antiprotons, and neutrons. At CERN it will be possible to test the production of unmatter. The existence of unmatter in the universe has a similar chance to that of the antimatter, and its production also difficult for present technologies.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

       Brightsen Model Nucleon Cluster Structures for 2-He-4 (the alpha)

            (note: numbers with minus sign (-) represent antimatter clusters)

                                     (primary clusters)  (secondary halo clusters)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

                                    NP  NPN   PNP   NN  PP   NNN  PPP     Isodyne Type

                                                            ...(etc.)...                           M (q - ?)

                    Matter       8     -2      -2       0      0      0      0             M (p)

                      (+)           5     -1      -1       0      0      0      0             M (o)

                                    -4      2       2       0      0      0      0             M (n)

                                     2      0       0       0      0      0      0             M (m)

                                     0      0       0       1      1      0      0             M (l)

                                    -1      1       1       0      0      0      0             M (k)

                                     0      2       0      -1      0      0      0             M (j)

                                     0      0       2       0     -1      0      0             M (i)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

                 Unmatter     0      0       1       0      0      -1      0      (uu)+(d^d^)=neutron pion

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

              Anti-matter     0      0      -2      0      1       0      0             M (i)

                                    -8       2      2      0      0       0      0             M (p)       

                                                       ...(etc.)...                               M (q-?)                                          

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

In the paper cited below by Tombrello et al. (1961), the nuc leon cluster structure of the mirror nuclei 3-Li-7 and 4-Be-7 was experimentally verified. 

In agreement with the Brightsen Nucleon Cluster Model, these two nuclei can be viewed to differ only by transformation of two mass-3 clusters in their outer energy level.  The Brightsen Model predicts that 3-Li-7 can have one isodyne structure where a [N-P-N] cluster in the 1p energy shell (with spin = 1/2) is bound to two [N-P] clusters (each with spin = 1) acting as a single phonon structure in the 1s energy shell (not the strongly bound alpha with spin = 0).   In this way the spins of the various clusters can form a net spin = 3/2 for the 3-Li-7 nuclei (e.g., spin 2/2 + 2/2 - 1/2 = 3/2).  Conversely, the Brightsen Model predicts that 4-Be-7 has a [P-N-P] cluster in its 1p energy shell with balance of spin dynamics.  Tombrello & Phillips (1961) conclude that neither 3-Li-7 nor 4-Be-7 are formed by a "free N or P" bound to a 3-Li-6 structure--which confirms the fundamental assumption of the Brightsen Model that free N and P do not exist within beta-stable isotopes.  Note also the fact that 4-Be-7 is unstable (undergoes electron capture) while 3-Li-7 is stable.  Electron capture by a [P-N-P] cluster in 4-Be-7 is predicted to result in a transformation into a [N-P-N] cluster to form 3-Li-7.  This paper by Tombrello et al. may provide an important clue to the cluster dynamics of the Brightsen Model--namely, that a lone [P-N-P] cluster in the 1p energy shell is unstable when bound to two [N-P] clusters that act as a single resonating phonon with spin I = 2 (not the stable alpha structure with spin I =0) in the 1s energy shell.  Comments are welcome.

Cluster Nature of Li⁷ and Be⁷   Tombrello, T. A.; Phillips, G. C.  ; Physical Review, vol. 122, Issue 1, pp. 224-228, 1961

Abstract

Measurements of the capture gamma-radiation processes, mass 3+alpha-->mass 7+gamma and nucleon+Li⁶-->mass 7+gamma, give information about the cluster structure of the mirror nuclei Li⁷ and Be⁷. The cluster model predicts that the ground state and low excited states of these nuclei should have large reduced widths theta₃₊₄2 for the configuration mass 3+alpha particle and small reduced widths theta₁₊₆2 for the configuration nucleon +Li⁶. Scattering experiments provide accurate initial, capturing, wave functions, and an assumption of the cluster nature of the final, bound, states allows the electromagnetic capture cross sections to be calculated and compared to experiment. The reduced widths deduced show that theta₃₊₄2 is large, theta₁₊₆2 is small, and that the ground states and first excited states of Li⁷ and Be⁷ are primarily of the two-body cluster form mass 3 + alpha particle.